Buddhism

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Buddhism is both a world religion^[1] and a philosophy with distribution throughout the world, and significant variation in beliefs among its adherents. Depending on the source,^{[2] [3] [4]} Buddhists number between 230 million ^[5] to 1.691 billion,^[6] most of them living in Asia. Buddhism is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, sometimes known simply as "The Buddha", who lived during the fifth century BCE in ancient India, in what is now Nepal and the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar located in the northeastern region of the Indian subcontinent.

Buddhism has spread through two main branches: Theravada which extended south and east from its origins and now has a widespread following in Southeast Asia, and Mahayana (the parent branch to many other schools), which diffused from its origins first west, north and east throughout East Asia, then further west into Europe and currently to the Americas. Buddhists schools disagree over the interpretation of the Dharma (the teachings of Gautama Buddha) and various practices. The Pāli Tipitaka (in Pāli, literally "Three Baskets") is a collection of Buddhist sacred books categorized in three large sections, and common to all schools. However, it does not include the Mahayana sutras, a document that's central to the Mayahana branch but irrelevant to Theravadins. Nonetheless, Mahayanans consider their sutras to be a compliment to the Pali Tipitaka, and part of the Buddhist texts, not a replacement.

All traditions recognize Gautama Buddha as an enlightened teacher who shared his insights in order to help sentient beings end their suffering in accordance with the laws of Karma by understanding the Four Noble Truths; realizing the true nature of phenomena and thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth known to Buddhists as Saṃsāra. Among the methods Buddhist schools apply towards that goal are ethical conduct, the cultivation of wisdom, the training of one's mind through learning and meditation, altruistic behaviour, renunciation of worldy matters, devotional practices and, in some branches, the invocation of holy beings to seek their help in achieving Nirvana. A Buddhist is one who takes refuge in The Three Jewels: Buddha; one who is Awakened, Dharma; The Teaching (of Buddha), and Sangha; The Community (of Buddhists).

Gautama Buddha

Main article: Gautama Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born in the city of Lumbini^[7] and was raised in Kapilavastu.^[8] According to the Tipitaka he was born a prince. Shortly after his birth a wise man visited his father, King Śuddhodana. The wise man said that Siddhartha would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a holy man (Sadhu) based on whether he saw life outside of the palace walls. Determined to make Siddhartha a king, Śuddhodana shielded his son from the unpleasant realities of daily life.

However, at the age of 29, he ventured outside the palace complex several times despite his father's wishes. As a result he discovered the suffering of his people, through encounters with: an old man, a diseased man, a decaying corpse and an ascetic. These are known among Buddhists as The Four Sights;^[9] one of the first contemplations of Siddharta. Years after this, he married Yasodhara, with whom he had a son.

After contemplating about The Four Sights, Gautama one day sought to be free from suffering by living the life of a mendicant ascetic, a highly respected spiritual practice at the time in ancient India. He left the palace, abandoning royal life to take up his spiritual quest, eventually finding companions with similar spiritual goals. He had various teachers who taught him various forms of meditation, including dhyāna.

One day, after almost starving to death, he accepted a little milk and rice from a village girl.^{[citation needed]} After this experience, he concluded that ascetic practices, such as fasting, holding one's breath, and exposure to pain brought little spiritual benefit. He viewed them as counterproductive due to their reliance on self hatred and mortification.^[10] He abandoned asceticism, concentrating instead on anapanasati meditation (awareness of breathing), thus discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way; a path of moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. However, his companions left him believing he had given up on his spiritual quest.^{[citation needed]}

After discovering the Middle Way, he sat under a Sacred fig (Ficus religiosa), also known as the Bodhi tree, in Bodh Gaya^[11][12] and vowed not to rise before achieving Nirvana. At age 35, after many days of meditation, he attained his goal, thus becoming a Buddha. He spent the rest of his life teaching the Dharma.^[13] He died at age 80 in Kushinagara, India. ^[14]

Buddhist Concepts

Main article: Buddhist terms and concepts

Karma: Cause and Effect

Main article: Karma in Buddhism

Karma (from Sanskrit: कर्मन् ^[15] karman) means literarily "action" or "work"; in a religious context it has an ethical or moral connotation. In Buddhism, this term is used specifically for those actions which spring from mental intent (Pāli: cetana),^[16] which brings about a fruit (Pāli, phala) or result (vipāka). Karma can be either negative or positive; with its respective negative or positive vipāka (consequence). Karma is the energy which drives saṃsāra (the cycle of suffering and rebirth) for each being. The kusala (skillful) and akusala (unskillful) actions produces "seeds" in the mind which come to fruition either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.^[17] The content of unwholesome actions and the lower types of wholesome actions belongs to the subject of Sila (ethical conduct).

In Theravada Buddhism there is no divine salvation or forgiveness from one's karman. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the Noble Eightfold Path. The Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra, also teaches that powerful sutras can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma. According to the Japanese Pure Land teacher Genshin, the Buddha Amitabha has the power to detroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in samsara.^[18]

Rebirth

Main article: Rebirth (Buddhism)

Rebirth means to be born again as one of many possible types of lifes, which where later formally classified as the Six Realms:

1. Hell
2. Animals
3. Pretas: hungry ghosts
4. Humans
5. Asuras (sometimes): variously translated as demons, titans, antigods
6. Devas: life as devas, variously translated as gods, spirits, angels, or left untranslated

Theravada does not recognize asuras as a separate realm^{[citation needed]}, but most Mahayana sources do.^{[citation needed]}

Rebirths in the higher heavens can be attained by the practice of Buddhist meditation.

The Four Noble Truths

Main article: The Four Noble Truths

According to the Theravada scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were taught by the Buddha in his first sermon after reaching Enlightenment.^[19] They are sometimes considered as containing the essence of the teachings of the Buddha and are presented in the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at the Buddha´s time.

According to one interpretation,^{[citation needed]} the Four Noble Truths present a formulation of the Buddha´s understanding of the nature of dukkha, or "suffering"^[20] , the fundamental cause of all suffering, the escape from suffering, and what effort a person can go to so that they themselves can "attain happiness."^[21]. Roughly put, and on a very basic level of understanding, they state that, firstly, life as we know it ultimately is or leads to "suffering" in one way or the other. That, secondly, the cause of this "suffering" is attachment to, or craving for worldly pleasures of all kinds and clinging to this very existence, our "self" and the things or people we - due to our delusions - deem the cause of our respective happiness or unhappiness. That, thirdly, the "suffering" ends when the craving ends, one is freed from all desires by eliminating the delusions, reaches "Enlightenment"; and that, fourthly, the way to reach that liberated state is by following the path the Buddha has laid out.

This interpretation is followed closely by many modern Theravadins,^{[citation needed]} described by early westerns scholars and taught as an introduction to Buddhism by some contemporary Buddhist teachers like the Dalai Lama.^[22]

According to other interpretations by Buddhist teachers and scholars and lately recognized by some western scholars as well^[23] the "truths" do not represent mere statements, but "things". According to that view, they present a perfect division of most phenomena as falling into one of these four categories: true sufferings and true causes are the effect and cause on the side of suffering; true cessations and true paths are the effect and cause on the side of liberation. They are according to the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism ^[24]

1. "the noble truth that is suffering"
2. "the noble truth that is the arising of suffering"
3. "the noble truth that is the end of suffering"
4. "the noble truth that is the way leading to the end of suffering"

The early teaching^[25] and the traditional understanding in the Theravada^[26] is that the four noble truths are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. The Mahayana position is that they are a preliminary teaching for people not yet ready for the higher and more expansive Mahayana teachings.^[27] They are little known in the Far East.^[28]

The Noble Eightfold Path

Main article: Noble Eightfold Path

The Dharmacakra represents the Noble Eightfold Path.

The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. In the early sources (the four main Nikayas) it is not generally taught to laymen, and it is little known in the Far East.^[29] This is divided into three sections: Prajñā (wisdom), Śīla (ethics or morality) and Samadhi (meditation or concentration), each starting with the word सम्यक् (samyak), which means correctly, properly, well, accurate.^[30]

• Prajñā is the wisdom which purifies the mind, concerning spiritual insight into the true nature of all things. This section has two subsections:

1. सम्यक् दृष्टि (dṛṣṭi), Correct Understanding of reality as it is, not just as it appears to be.
2. सम्यक् संकल्प (saṃkalpa), Correct Thoughts

• Śīla is the morality of abstaining from unwholesome deeds of body and speech. This section has three subsections:

3. सम्यक् वाच् (vāk), Correct Speech; in a truthful, non hurtful and not exaggerated way
4. सम्यक् कर्मन् (karmān), Correct Actions; avoiding those that would do harm
5. सम्यक् आजीवन (ājīvana), Correct Livelihood; one that does not harm oneself or others, either directly or indirectly

• Samadhi is developing mastery over one’s own mind through the practice of meditation and other mental disciplines. This section has three subsections:

6. सम्यक् व्यायाम (vyāyāma, vāyāma) Correct Effort/Exercise:
   One makes an effort to improve
7. सम्यक् स्मृति (smṛti, sati) Correct Mindfulness/Awareness:
   Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness, being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion.
8. सम्यक् समाधि (samādhi) Correct Concentration/Meditation:
   Practicing meditation correctly (see dhyāna).

There are basically two ways to interpret the practice of the Eightfold Path:

1. It is spoken as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another
2. The states of the 'Path' require simultaneous development, they're practiced in parallel.

Middle Way

Main article: Middle Way

An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way which was said to have been discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment (bodhi). The Middle Way or Middle Path has several definitions:

1. It is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification.
2. It also refers to taking a middle ground between certain metaphysical views, e.g. that things ultimately either exist or do not exist.^[31]
3. An explanation of the state of nirvana and perfect enlightenment where all dualities fuse and cease to exist as separate entities (see Seongcheol).
4. Another term for emptiness, the ultimate nature of all phenomena, lack of inherent existence, which avoids the extremes of permanence and nihilism or inherent existence and nothingness.

Reality in Buddhism

Main article: Reality in Buddhism

According to the scriptures, in his lifetime, the Buddha refused to answer several metaphysical questions. On issues such as whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the self, complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death etc, the Buddha had remained silent. One explanation for this is that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing enlightenment.^[32] Another is that such questions assume the reality of world/self/person.

In the Pali Canon and numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: Reality transcends all worldly concepts. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, faith in and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself. In the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" (Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra, a scripture of the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism) also emphasises how Buddhist Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ...."^[33] Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist yogi and teacher mahasiddha Tilopa discouraged any intellectual activity in his 6 words of advice.

Most Buddhists agree that, to a greater or lesser extent, words are inadequate to describe the goal; schools differ radically on the usefulness of words in the path to that goal.^[34]

Buddhist scholars have produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts. See e.g. Abhidharma, Buddhist philosophy and Reality in Buddhism. Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, but most regard it as having a place, at least for some people at some stages.

Mahayana often adopts a pragmatic concept of truth:^[35] doctrines are "true" in the sense of being spiritually beneficial. In modern Chinese Buddhism, all doctrinal traditions are regarded as equally valid.^[36]

Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from Nāgārjuna (perhaps c.150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. Some of the writings attributed to him made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the Tripiṭaka sūtras. Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be śūnya (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anātman (no-self) and pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the Madhyamaka. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Madhyamaka system.^[37]

Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna, was reformulated by scholars such as Vasubandhu and Asaṅga and were adapted into the Yogācāra (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna metaphysics in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.

In the Mahayana school, emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness (shunyata), perfected spiritual insight (prajnaparamita) and Buddha-nature (the deathless tathagatagarbha, or Buddhic Essence, inherent in all beings and creatures). in the tathagatagarbha sutras the Buddha is portrayed proclaiming that the teaching of the tathagatagarbha constitutes the "absolutely final culmination" of his Dharma—the highest presentation of Truth (other sūtras make similar statements about other teachings). This has traditionally been regarded as the highest teaching in East Asian Buddhism. However, in modern China all doctrines are regarded as equally valid.^[38] The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalist panentheism (God in Buddhism).

Theravāda promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis". This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith.

The Cycle of Samsara

Main article: Pratītyasamutpāda

Human beings crave pleasure and satisfaction of the six senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and thinking) from birth to death. After another rebirth they do the same, and continue repeating this cycle (Samsara). Humans always expect pleasure and do not like to feel pain. This cycle of suffering is explained in twelve links of dependent origination, each conditioning the next:

1. Avidyā: ignorance, specifically spiritual^[39]
2. Saṃskāras: literally formations, explained as referring to Karma.
3. Vijñāna: consciousness, specifically discriminative^[40]
4. Nāmarūpa: literally name and form, referring to mind and body^[41]
5. Ṣaḍāyatana: the six sense bases: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind-organ
6. Sparśa: variously translated contact, impression, stimulation
7. Vedanā: usually translated feeling: this is the "hedonic tone", i.e. whether something is pleasant, unpleasant or neutral
8. Tṛṣṇā: literally thirst, but nearly always in Buddhism used to mean craving
9. Upādāna: clinging or grasping; the word also means fuel, which feeds the continuing cycle of rebirth
10. Bhava: literally being (existence) or becoming. (The Theravada explains this as having two meanings: karma, which produces a new existence, and the existence itself.^[42])
11. Jāti: literally birth, but life is understood as starting at conception^[43]
12. Jarāmaraṇa (old age and death) and also śokaparidevaduḥkhadaurmanasyopāyāsa (sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness and misery)

Human beings always suffer throughout Samsara, until they become free from this suffering when attaining Nirvana. Then the absence of ignorance leads to the absence of the others as above.

Nirvana

Main article: Nirvana

Nirvana (devanagari: निर्वन) is a concept that comes from Sanskrit and means "cessation", "extinction" (of suffering) or (tṛṣṇā) "extinguished", "quited", "calmed"^[44]; it's also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West. Also, Buddhists believe that anybody who has achieved nirvana (also known as bodhi) is in fact a Buddha.

Mahayana Buddhism generally regards as its most important teaching the path of the bodhisattva. This already existed as a possibility in earlier Buddhism, as it still does in Theravada today, but the Mahayana gave it an increasing emphasis, eventually saying everyone should follow it.

In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless, omnipresent being (see Dharmakaya) beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself.

Gautama Buddha, ancient region of Gandhara, northern Pakistan, 1st century CE, Musée Guimet, Paris.

Bodhi (Pāli and Sanskrit, in devanagari: बॊधि) is a term applied to the experience of Awakening of Arahants. Bodhi literally means "awakening", but is more commonly referred to as "enlightenment". In Early Buddhism Bodhi carries a meaning synonymous to Nirvana, using only some different similies to describe the experience, which implied the extinction of raga (greed),^[45] dosa (hate)^[46] and moha (delusion).^[47]

Buddhas

Main article: Buddhahood

Theravada

A person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality; such people are called arahants. After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving they have also reached the end of the compulsive cycle of rebirths, no longer reincarnating as human, animal, ghost, or other being.

These people, also occasionally referred to as buddhas, are classified into three types.

• Sammasambuddha, usually just called Buddha, who discovers the truth by himself and teaches the path to awakening to others
• Paccekabuddha, who discovers the truth by himself but lacks the skill to teach others
• Sāvakabuddha, who has followed the teaching of a Buddha, and may use it to guide others (see also: Arhat)

Bodhi and Nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate and delusion. The Arahant, according to Theravada doctrine, has thus overcome greed, hatred, and delusion, attaining Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, the extinction of only greed (in relation to the sense sphere) and hatred, while a residue of delusion remains, is called Anagami.

Mahayana

Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on the material plane of existence, but who still aid in the enlightenment of all beings.

Nirvana came to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained Nirvana. Bodhi became a higher attainment that eradicate delusion entirely.^[48] Thus, the Arahant attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while the Buddha attains Bodhi.

The method of self-exertion or "self-power" - without reliance on an external force or being - stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, "Pure Land", which is characterised by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of Amida Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in Amitabha Buddha and/or the chanting of homage to his name will provide the spiritual energy that will liberate one at death into the "happy land" (sukhavati) or "pure land" of Amitabha (called Amida in Japanese) Buddha. This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only people will have faith in the power of that limitless great Vow, or will utter the liberational chant of Amida's name.

Nearly all Chinese Buddhists accept that the chances of attaining sufficient enlightenment by one's own efforts are very slim, so that Pure Land practice is essential as an "insurance policy" even if one practises something else.^[49]

Buddha Eras

Buddhists believe the Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism. A Buddha era is the stretch of history during which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest known Buddha. This Buddha era will end when all the knowledge, evidence and teachings of the Guatama Buddha have vanished. This belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have started and ended throughout the course of human existence.^[50][51] Therefore, the Gautama Buddha is the Buddha of this era, who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see types of Buddhas).

In addition, Mahayana believes there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes^{[citation needed]}, but Theravada denies this.^{[citation needed]}

Bodhisattvas

Mahayana encourages everyone to follow a bodhisattva path, while Theravada regards it as an option. Theravada and some Mahayana sources consider a bodhisattva as someone on the path to Buddhahood, while other Mahayana sources speak of bodhisattvas renouncing Buddhahood. The Mahayana summarizes bodhisattva practice in six perfections: giving,morality, patience, energy, concentration and wisdom.

Practice

Devotion

Main article: Buddhist devotion

Devotion is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists.^[52] Devotional practices include bowing, offerings, pilgrimage, chanting. In Pure Land Buddhism, devotion to the Buddha Amitabha is the main practice. In Nichiren Buddhism, devotion to the Lotus Sutra is the main practice.

Refuge in the Three Jewels

Footprint of the Buddha with Dharmachakra and triratna, 1st century CE, Gandhāra.

Main articles: Refuge (Buddhism) and Three Jewels

Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking refuge in the Three Jewels (Sanskrit: त्रिरत्न TriRatna, Pali: Tiratana).^[53], as the foundation of one's religious practice. The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned^[54] in the Majjhima Nikaya, recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf Infant baptism). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama. In Mahayana, the person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge; which is considered the ultimate expression of compassion.

The Three Jewels are:

• The Buddha (i.e.,Awakened One). This is a title for those who attained Nirvana. See also the Tathāgata and Śākyamuni Buddha. The Buddha could also be represented as a concept instead of a specific person: the perfect wisdom that understands Dharma and sees reality in its true form.
• The Dharma: The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). It can also (especially in Mahayana Buddhism) connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha.
• The Sangha: This term literally means "group" (of Buddhists) or "congregation" (of monks), but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups^{[citation needed]}: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis)^{[citation needed]}, or the community of people who have attained at least the first noble stage (Sotapanna (pali): one who has entered the stream to enlightenment)^{[citation needed]}. According to some modern Buddhists^{[citation needed]}, it also consists of laymen and laywomen, usually also the caretakers of monks.

According to the scriptures, Gautama Buddha presented himself as a model, however, he did not ask his followers simply to have faith (Sanskrit श्रद्धा śraddhā, Pāli saddhā) in his example of a human who attained Nirvana. In addition, he encouraged them to put his teachings to the test and accept what they could verify on their own, provided that this was also "praised by the wise" (see Kalama Sutta). The Dharma offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana. The Saṅgha (Buddhist Order of monks) is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

The Three Jewels is part of Buddhist devotion.

Buddhist Ethics

Main article: The Five Precepts

Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pāli) is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi, and panya) and the second pāramitā. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed.

Monastic life

Main article: Vinaya

Meditation

Main article: Buddhist meditation

Buddhist meditation encompasses a variety of meditation techniques that develop mindfulness, concentration, tranquility and insight. Core meditation techniques are preserved in ancient Buddhist texts and have proliferated and diversified through the millennia of teacher-student transmissions.

Dhyāna

Main article: Dhyāna

in Theravāda

Main article: Jhāna in Theravada

In Theravāda Buddhism, the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as the craving, which carries with it the various defilements. These various defilements are traditionally summed up as greed, hatred and delusion. These are believed to be parasites that have infested the mind and create suffering and stress. In order to be free from suffering and stress, these defilements need to be permanently uprooted through internal investigation, analyzing, experiencing, and understanding of the true nature of those defilements by using jhāna, a technique which is part of the Noble Eightfold Path. It will then lead the meditator to realize the Four Noble Truths, Enlightenment and Nibbana. Nibbana is the ultimate goal of Theravadins.

History

Main article: History of Buddhism

Indian Buddhism

Main article: History of Buddhism in India

The Buddhist "Carpenter's Cave" at Ellora in Maharashtra, India.

Early Buddhism

Main article: Early Buddhist schools

The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into the following five periods:^[55]

1. Early Buddhism or Early Buddhist Schools (also called Pre-sectarian Buddhism); Hajime Nakamura^[56] subdivides this into two subperiods:
   1. original Buddhism (other scholars call this earliest Buddhism or precanonical Buddhism^{[citation needed]})
   2. early Buddhism
2. Period of the Early Buddhist schools (also called Sectarian Buddhism, Nikaya Buddhism)
3. Early Mahayana Buddhism
4. Later Mahayana Buddhism
5. Vajrayana Buddhism (also called Esoteric Buddhism)

These developments were not always consecutive. For example, the early schools continued to exist alongside Mahayana. Some scholars have argued that Mahayana remained marginal for centuries.^{[citation needed]}

Pre-sectarian Buddhism

Main article: Pre-sectarian Buddhism

The earliest phase of Buddhism (pre-sectarian Buddhism) recognized by nearly all scholars (the main exception is Dr Gregory Schopen,^[57]) is based on a comparison of the Pali Canon with surviving portions of other early canons.^{[citation needed]} Its main scriptures are the Vinaya Pitaka and the four principal Nikayas or Agamas.

Certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, so most scholars conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught at least:^[58]

• the three characteristics
• the five aggregates
• dependent arising
• karma and rebirth
• the four noble truths
• the eightfold path
• nirvana

Some scholars disagree, and have proposed many other theories.^[59]

Councils

Main article: Buddhist councils

According to the scriptures, soon after the paranirvāṇa (Sanskrit: परनिर्वाण - paranirvāṇa Pāli: parinibbāna, "supreme extinguishment"^[60]) of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in oral transmission. In the first council, Ānanda, a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses (sūtras, Pāli suttas) of the Buddha, and, according to some sources, the abhidhamma. Upāli, another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya). Scholars regard the traditional accounts of the council as greatly exaggerated if not entirely fictitious.^[61]

According to most scholars, at some period after the Second Council however, the Sangha began to break into separate factions. Schopen suggests that Buddhism was very diverse from the beginning and became less so.^[62] The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred: according to the Dipavamsa of the Pāli tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council; the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN; the Sarvastivada tradition of Vasumitra says it was in the time of Asoka; and the Mahasanghika tradition places it much later, nearly 100 BCE.

The Asokan edicts, our only contemporary sources, state that 'the Sangha has been made unified'. This may refer to a dispute such as that described in the account of the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputta. This concerns the expulsion of non-Buddhist heretics from the Sangha, and does not speak of a schism. However, the late Professor Hirakawa argued that the first schism occurred after the death of Asoka. These schisms occurred within the early Buddhist schools, at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school.

The root schism was between the Sthaviras and the Mahāsāṅghikas. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. The Sthavira group offers two quite distinct reasons for the schism. The Dipavamsa of the Theravāda says that the losing party in the Second Council dispute broke away in protest and formed the Mahasanghika. This contradicts the Mahasanghikas' own vinaya, which shows them as on the same, winning side. On the other hand, the northern lineages, including the Sarvastivada and Puggalavada (both branches of the ancient Sthaviras) attribute the Mahāsāṅghika schism to the '5 points' that erode the status of the arahant^{[citation needed]}. For their part, the Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to expand the Vinaya; they may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for Arhatship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.^[63] The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravāda school. Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya, and monks following different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.^[64]

Further developments

Main article: Timeline of Buddhism

Buddhist proselytism at the time of emperor Aśoka the Great (260–218 BCE).

Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an Abhidharma, a collection of philosophical texts and commentaries. Early sources for these probably existed in the time of the Buddha as simple lists. However, as time went on and Buddhism spread further, the (perceived) teachings of Gautama Buddha were formalized in a more systematic manner in a new Pitaka: the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Some modern academics refer to it as Abhidhamma Buddhism. Interestingly, in the opinion of some scholars^{[citation needed]}, the Mahasanghika school did not have an Abhidhamma Pitaka, which agrees with their statement that they did not want to add to the Buddha's teachings. But according to Chinese pilgrims Fa-hsien (Faxian) (5th century CE), Yuan Chuang and Hsüan-tsang (Xuanzang, 7th century CE), Mahasanghika School did have their own version of Abhidhamma.^[65][66][67]

Buddhist tradition records in the Milinda Panha that the 2nd century BCE Indo-Greek king Menander converted to the Buddhist faith and became an arhat.

Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the Mauryan emperor Aśoka the Great, who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more stūpas (Buddhist religious memorials) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.

This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the edicts of Aśoka, emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread Buddhism (Dharma), particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring Seleucid Empire, and even farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the Indo-Greek Kingdom, and to the development of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries^{[citation needed]}.

Buddhism today

Main article: Timeline of Buddhism#f3ffff Era

Buddhism had become virtually extinct in India, and although it continued to exist in surrounding countries, its influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength. Estimates of the number of Buddhist followers are uncertain, ranging from 230 to more than 1.600 million worldwide. Most scholars classify similar numbers of people under a category they call Chinese folk or traditional religion, which is an amalgam of various traditions, including Buddhism. Estimates are uncertain and in dispute because:

• of difficulties in defining who counts as a Buddhist;
• of synchretism in the Eastern religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto and traditional religions or Shamanism, animism; having beliefs comprising a mix of religious ideas;^{[68][69][70][71][72][73][74]}
• it was difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists because they did not have congregational memberships and often did not participate in public ceremonies;^[75]
• of uncertainties in the situation for several countries; most notably China, Vietnam and North Korea^[76][77][78].

According to one analysis,^[79] Buddhism is the fourth-largest religion in the world behind Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. The monks' order (Sangha), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha in India, is among the oldest organizations on earth.

Typical interior of a temple in Korea

• Theravāda Buddhism, using Pāli as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and Burma. Also the Dalit Buddhist movement in India (inspired by B. R. Ambedkar) practices Theravada.
• East Asian forms of Mahayana Buddhism that use scriptures in Chinese are dominant in most of China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Vietnam as well as within Chinese and Japanese communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West.
• Tibetan Buddhism is found in Tibet and the surrounding areas in India, Bhutan, Mongolia, Northeast China, Nepal, and the Russian Federation.
• Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated to some eastern tradition listed above. An exception is the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, though they can be considered Mahayanist in a broad sense.

The numbers of adherents of the three main traditions listed above are about 124, 185 and 20 million, respectively.^[80]

At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While, in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and traditional. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organized and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognized as one of the growing spiritual influences.

Schools and Traditions

Main article: Schools of Buddhism

The most frequently used classification of Buddhism among scholars^{[81][page # needed]} has two divisions, Theravada and Mahayana. In this classification, Mahayana includes both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. This scheme is the one ordinarily used in the English language.^[82] Some scholars^[83] use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes. A common addition to this three is Vajrayana, but it can also be considered part of Mahayana. Hinayana (literally "smaller vehicle") is used to name Theravada, but this can be considered derogatory.

An alternative scheme used by some scholars^[84] divides Buddhism into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Theravada, East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.

Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central. Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be drawn between them.

Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.

Despite some differences among the Theravada and Mahayana schools, there are several concepts common to both major Buddhist branches:^[85]

• Both accept the Buddha as their teacher.
• Both accept the middle way, dependent origination, the four noble truths and the noble eightfold path, in theory, though in practice these have little or no importance in some traditions.
• Both accept that members of the laity and of the sangha can pursue the path toward enlightenment (bodhi).
• Both consider buddhahood to be the highest attainment; however Theravadins consider the nirvana (nibbana to the Theravadins) attained by arahants as identical to that attained by the Buddha himself, as there is only one type of nirvana. According to Theravadins, a buddha is someone who has discovered the path all by himself and taught it to others.

Theravāda

Main article: Theravada

Theravāda ("Doctrine of the Elders", or "Ancient Doctrine") is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It is relatively conservative, and generally closest to early Buddhism.^[86] This school is derived from the Vibhajjavāda grouping which emerged amongst the older Sthavira group at the time of the Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE). This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive.

The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the Pāli Canon and its commentaries. After being orally transmitted for a few centuries, its scriptures, the Pali Canon, were finally committed to writing in the last century BCE, in Sri Lanka, at what the Theravada usually reckon as the fourth council. It is also one of the first Buddhist schools to commit the complete set of its canon into writing. The Sutta collections and Vinaya texts of the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the Tripitaka), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.

Theravāda is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has a growing presence in Europe and America.

Mahayana

Main article: Mahayana

Chinese Seated Buddha, Tang Dynasty, Hebei province, ca. 650 CE. Chinese Buddhism is of the Mahayana tradition, with popular schools today being Pure Land and Zen.

The precise geographical origins of Mahayana are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahayana developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the Kushan Empire (within present-day northern Pakistan), and in areas within the Shatavahana Empire, including Amaravati to the south-east (in present-day Andhra Pradesh), to the west around the port of Bharukaccha (present-day Bharuch, a town near Bombay), and around the various cave complexes, such as Ajanta and Karli (in present-day Gujarat and Maharashtra). Some scholars have argued that Mahayana was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around stupa devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stupa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a bodhisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses. Other scholar reject this theory.^[87] Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Sangha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the Sarvastivada school and the Dharmaguptaka school, both of which were widespread in the Kushan Empire, seem to have had major influence.